Introduction
Written by Nicole Bijlsma
(Building Biologist, Naturopath & Acupuncturist)
Like air, water quality is something we all take for
granted, but can we afford to be so complacent? Australians often
brag that they have one of the cleanest drinking water supplies in
the world. Theoretically this assumption is correct if you drink it
from the forested catchment area. As this is not permitted, the chemicals
that are consequently added to ‘purify’ the water and
the hundreds of kilometres of pipes through which it must travel,
affect the quality of water that ultimately comes out of your tap.
Let’s look at chlorine as an example. Chlorine is added to our
water supply as it is a strong antibacterial agent. In fact it is
thanks to chlorine that the waterborne epidemics of yester year are
rarely a problem in industrialised countries. However the amount of
chlorine that is added must be sufficient that it is still active
by the time it reaches your tap. In this way it can destroy most microbial
agents in the distribution (mains) system. In light of the research
now available on probiotics (bacteria in the intestines) and its important
role in human health, consumption of chlorinated water is of particular
concern with several studies linking it with bowel and bladder cancer.
Furthermore, chlorine is a strong skin and respiratory irritant which
is the reason why most people with chronic skin conditions are worse
with bathing.
Few people realise that the water they drink and bathe in, is recycled
on our planet. There is approximately 13 billion km3 of water on our
planet - which is the same water that was present when the earth was
formed. Where most of this water is contained in the oceans (97%),
2% is bound in icecaps and glaciers and the remaining 1% is found
in ground water, rivers, lakes and the atmosphere. This brings up
an interesting point - the earth won’t run out of water as it
doesn’t evaporate into outer space (providing the ionosphere
remains intact of course!). Instead, most of this water is continually
‘recycled’ through a process known as the Water Cycle.
Unfortunately since the industrial revolution, we have unwittingly
introduced tens of thousands of tonnes of pollutants into our air
and water ways. This along with a mass migration of people from rural
to the cities has consequently introduced pollutants into our air
and water not seen before in the history of mankind. Whilst the earth’s
capacity to purify this water is nothing short of remarkable, its
ability to filter out these contaminants cannot continue indefinitely
without long term ramifications to human health and the ecology of
the planet. A building biologist is trained to assess what contaminants
you are likely to be exposed to based on your source of water, and
from this inform you as to the best water filtration system for you
and your family.
Like to know more? A
comprehensive course on Drinking Water Quality is available at the
Australian College of Environmental Studies.
The course highlights the contaminants likely to be present in your
drinking water and their adverse health effects. More importantly,
using the principles of building biology, it will provide you with
the ability to choose the most appropriate water filtration system
and storage vessels for your workplace and home. For more information,
click here.
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WATER CONTAMINANTS
There are a vast range of substances that may contaminate your drinking
water including:
• Microorganisms
• Radioactive minerals
• Organic contaminants
• Inorganic contaminants
• Disinfectants & their by-products
• Pipes & storage vessels
Microbes
Without doubt, sewage continues to be one of the major sources of
water pollution throughout the world. Sewage is a
source of parasites, pathogens, viruses, bacteria and endocrine disrupters.
Bacteria from human and animal wastes can enter a water supply from
septic tank drainage, run-off from sewerage plants, animal farms (feedlot
manure) or direct drainage of surface runoff into wells. Many of the
epidemics that the world has experienced have originated from contamination
of our water supplies as a result of human and animal wastes. Thanks
to the implementation of a sewage and mains distribution system, Dysentery,
Typhoid Fever and Cholera are not commonly experienced in developed
countries. However E Coli, Giardia, Cryptosporidium and Campylobacter
originating from human and animal waste, are issues that may surface
from time to time even in western countries. Blue green algae
are cyanobacteria that have been around since the earth was formed.
They are normally benign and ubiquitous however their growth into
toxic blooms will multiply exponentially in the presence of nitrogen
and phosphorous fertilizers (run off from farms). These blooms commonly
cover dams and rivers rendering the water undrinkable. As a result
of consuming the oxygen in the water the fish will die. They release
colourless, odourless poisons that are more powerful than cyanide,
and remain in the water long after the bloom has disappeared. Diarrhea
and stomach problems may arise as a result of exposure, with children
and the elderly being most susceptible. In a bad season, up to two
thirds of Australia’s water supplies maybe affected by blue
green algae.
Radioactive Minerals
Certain minerals are radioactive and may emit a form of radiation
known as radium 226/228 or alpha / beta radiation .
People who drink water containing alpha emitters in excess of US EPAs
standard over many years, may have an increased risk of developing
cancer. Radon gas is a colourless,
odourless, tasteless radioactive gas that is formed from the radioactive
decay of uranium found naturally in the ground (usually in granite).
Most of the radon in indoor air comes from the breakdown of uranium
in soils beneath homes. Radon gas exposure is responsible for 20,000
lung cancer deaths annually and is the second most common cause of
lung cancer only after cigarette smoking (US EPA, 2007). Radon can
dissolve and accumulate in underground water sources such as wells
and in the air of homes. Only 1-2% of radon in indoor air comes from
drinking water; however breathing radon released to air from household
water use does increase the risk of lung cancer. Ingestion of drinking
water containing radon also presents a risk of internal organ cancers
especially of the stomach. According to a 1999 report by the National
Academy of Science (cited in US EPA website), in the USA, radon in
drinking water causes around 168 cancer deaths per year, with 89%
from lung cancer caused by breathing in radon released from water
and 11% from stomach cancer caused by drinking radon-containing water.
Drinking water containing radon presents a risk of developing kidney
toxicity and cancer. Australians are less likely to be affected by
radon gas exposure as there are fewer granite deposits, however a
large study on this has never been conducted in this country.
Organic Contaminants
There are a huge variety of organic contaminants that maybe found
in our water supply. Organic contaminants can be classed into two
categories: synthetic organic contaminants (such as pesticides, PCBs)
and volatile organic contaminants (petrochemicals, vinyl chloride
and most industrial solvents such as benzene, toluene..). Pesticides
are any agents used to kill or control any pest and include insects,
rodents, birds, unwanted plants (weeds), fungi, or micro-organisms
such as bacteria and viruses. Many household products are pesticides,
such as cockroach sprays and baits, rat poisons, pet flea collars,
products that kill mould and mildew and kitchen disinfectants. Pesticides
were first introduced in Australia in the early 1950s. In the USA,
synthetic pesticide use began in 1940s after WW11. Most pesticides
(95%) are used for agriculture, whilst 5% is used for domestic use
such as garden weed killers, insecticidal flea collars, pest repelling
strips, lindane containing lice shampoos, sprays, dusts, shampoos
and dips for household pets. Ironically less then 0.1% of pesticides
applied for pest control actually reach their target pests; leaving
99.9% to move into the general environment (Steinberger, 1998). Whilst
some run into our water ways or bind to soil, most will become airborne
where they will fall as rain. No public records of pesticide spraying
are required to be kept in either urban or rural areas in Australia
and there is sporadic and incomplete monitoring of air and water quality
(Short, 1994). The adverse health effects associated with pesticides
depends upon the type used. Organochlorine pesticides such as DDT,
aldrin, dieldrin, Agent Orange, affect the central nervous system,
and consequently may cause headache, dizziness, tremor, incoordination,
paresthesia of the face and limbs, ataxia, cardiac arrhythmia, convulsions,
seizures and death (Reigart and Roberts, 1999). Nausea, vomiting may
also occur. Organochlorines are also linked to sterility and other
hormonal problems that we now face. Fortunately some of the organochlorine
pesticides including DDT and Agent Orange have now been banned, but
their legacy still lives on in countries such as Vietnam as a result
of the war. General symptoms that may arise as a result of exposure
to pesticides are: Multiple Chemical Sensitivity and Chronic Fatigue
Syndrome; reproductive effects (increased risk of miscarriages, infertility,
decreased sperm count and quality, birth defects and still births);
learning and behaviourhal disorders in children; impaired immune and
thyroid function; increased incidence of lymphoma, leukemia and cancer
(breast, testicular and prostate), skin and respiratory irritant;
and death! If you think pesticides are unlikely to affect you living
in a developed country - think again! On the 15th December 2003, an
aerial spray helicopter carrying 60 litres of a mixture of alpha cypermethrin,
atrazine, simazine, terbacil and chlorothalonil crashed in St Helens,
a small town in Tasmania, Australia. As a result of flooding, it ended
up contaminating their water supply and killing 90% of the oysters
in the local bay (Georges Bay). The authorities failed to act despite
the fact that hundreds of people were affected and some of the pesticides
are known carcinogens and teratogens (causes birth defects).
Inorganic Contaminants
Inorganic contaminants are those contaminants that do not contain
a Carbon atom. Many of the inorganic contaminants are heavy
metals: antimony, arsenic, asbestos, barium, beryllium, cadmium,
chromium, copper, cyanide, fluoride, lead, mercury, selenium and thallium.
They enter our bodies via food, drinking water and air. Some heavy
metals (e.g. copper, selenium, zinc) are essential to maintain the
metabolism of the human body, however at higher concentrations they
may be poisonous. The world has experienced the consequences of many
heavy metal disasters, however Bhopal, India and Minamatta, Japan
would have to top the list on the scale of people affected. Tonnes
of mercury were dumped into Minamatta Bay, Japan between 1932 and
1968 by the Chisso Corporation - a fertiliser and later a petrochemical
and plastic company. By 1952, thousands of people whose diet included
fish from the bay, unexpectedly developed symptoms of methyl mercury
poisoning. 500 died. The illness became known as the "Minamata
Disease". Since then, Japan has had the strictest environmental
laws in the industrialised world. On the night of December 2-3 1984,
Union Carbide India Limited was responsible for one of the largest
toxic gas leaks in history. The exposure to methyl isocyanate pesticide
was responsible for over 4000 deaths within the first few days and
injured over 500,000 people. Chronic illnesses still affect 150,000
Bhopalis today. Closer to home, a survey by a geology group from the
University of Sydney in 1998, revealed that sediments in Sydney Harbour
contain some of the worst heavy metal pollution in the world. The
Torrens River in Adelaide and Port Philip Bay in Melbourne are also
contaminated with heavy metals. With regards to your drinking water,
the corrosion of metal pipes (galvanised iron pipes and copper
pipes) is also likely to leach heavy metals (lead, cadmium, copper,
zinc) and especially if the water is chlorinated as it will be more
acidic. Taps that are made from various metal alloys, may
also leach small amounts of heavy metals. You'll probably also be
surprised that PVC plastic pipes use lead, cadmium and zinc as stabilisers.
Disinfectants
According to Archer (2001), around 80,000 tonnes of poisonous and
reactive chemicals are added every year to our water supply including
sulphuric acid, hydrogen peroxide, copper sulphate, hydrofluorosilicic
acid, liquefied chlorine, sodium hypochlorite, lime, aluminium sulphate,
ammonia and another 50 compounds in order to make it “safe”
for human consumption. Despite the publication of the Australian Drinking
Water Guidelines in 2004, they are merely guidelines and therefore
not legally enforceable. The use of chemicals to disinfect your water
supply is ultimately determined by your water distributor. These chemicals
include chlorine, lime, aluminium, polyelectrolytes, and fluoride.
Chlorine and fluoride are without doubt, two of the most controversial.
Chlorine represents a health risk in several ways:
as an antibacterial it must be added insufficeint amounts as to still
be active by the time it reaches your tap. Drinking chlorinated water
will destroy beneficial bacteria in the digestive system and particularly
the probiotics in the intestine; thus its link to rectal and intestinal
cancers. Secondly it produces by-products such as chloroform, a suspected
carcinogen that becomes readily released in hot water especially if
it is sprayed through the air (shower). Thirdly in June 1988, the
US National Cancer Institute as a result of a 10,000 person study,
concluded that people who drink chlorinated water for long periods
of time, have twice the incidence of bladder cancer. Fourthly chlorine
is a strong skin and respiratory irritant (aggravates eczema and asthma).
Fifth, it generates free radicals and suppresses the immunity. Lastly,
it decreases the pH thereby acidifying the water. Apart from corroding
pipes, acidic water can leach heavy metals such as lead from pipe
fittings. The concerns raised with fluoridated water are
highlighted by the fact that most countries have banned it since the
1970s. In fact, only 4% of the world’s drinking water is artificially
fluoridated, this being in Australia, New Zealand, USA, Ireland, Columbia
and Singapore. Whilst fluoride is recommended by dental authorities
as a preventative in tooth decay, there is no valid scientific research
to support these claims. Part of the health concerns associated with
fluoridated water lie with the fact that it is a toxic waste product
from the phosphate fertiliser and alumumium industries. This fluoride
‘slurry’ is contaminated with arsenic, lead, cadmium and
mercury. Adverse health effects associated with fluoride are dental
fluorosis, osteosarcoma andincreased hip fractures (as fluoride makes
bones more brittle). There are also rising concernsregarding its impact
on the thyroid and reproductive organs.
Pipes & Storage Vessels
It's all very well to focus on the source of your water, however the
vessel it is transported and/or stored in, may also affect water quality.
Your tap water is sent through hundreds of kilometres of pipe (mains)
including asbestos cement sheet, lead pipe, cast iron, copper. Nowadays
cement lined ductile iron or mild steel, glass reinforced plastic,
PVC are used to replace the old mains. Domestic piping under your
home will be polybutylene, copper or polypropylene. There are adverse
health effects associated with many of these (refer to water pollution
course for more information). Tank water has many
issues associated with its use such as the material it is made of,
mosquito larvae and animal droppings and heavy metals from lead flashing
on the roof or from lead dust from nearby traffic, just to name a
few! Bottled water also contains its issues: what
is the source of water, what type of material is the vessel made from
(polycarbonate water bottles contain bisphenol A - an endocrine disrupter
which mimics the hormone oestrogen and has been linked to cancers,
impaired immune function, obesity, diabetes, hyperactivity, thyroid
disruption, early onset of puberty and ovarian disease)! What about
the environmental issues associated with manufacturing and recycling
the plastics used as water bottles (ie its life cycle assessment).
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WATER FILTERS
The best water filtration system will mimic mother nature. When you
consider that the same 13 billion km3 of water on the earth has been
continuously recycled (ie the water cycle) for billions of years,
you come to truly appreciate the homeostatic mechanism found in nature.
Water purification is achieved by the earth in several ways:
1. Aeration. The movement of water throughout the landscape enables
it to absorb oxygen. Despite the fact that we have no understanding
as to how this is achieved, it is particularly so when it swirls,
gurgles and falls down rapids.
2. Exposure to UV radiation from the sun
3. Many plants in wetlands, swamps and in bush, have a purifying action
on water
4. Volcanic rock, sand and soil present in the earth’s crust
acts to trap and filter larger contaminants
5. Fish oxygenate water
For a start, there is NO ideal water filter on the market. Each one
has its advantages and disadvantages. There are heaps of water filtrations
systems on the market which vary considerably in what they can and
cannot remove. Before you consider purchasing a filter, you need to
determine which water contaminants you wish to remove. When looking
at buying a water filter, always request to see the lastest water
quality report (this should be accredited through the NSF or
through a NATA accredited lab). For more information regarding the
most ideal water filter for you, talk to a building biologist or visit
www.aquifer.net.au
Like to know more?
A comprehensive
course on Drinking Water Quality is available at the Australian
College of Environmental Studies. The course highlights the contaminants
likely to be present in your drinking water and their adverse health
effects. More importantly, using the principles of building biology,
it will provide you with the ability to choose the most appropriate
water filtration system and storage vessels for your workplace and
home. For more information, click here.
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